PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS STUDY OF OIL EXTRACTED FROM RAFFIA PALM SEED
Keywords:
Raffia oil, physicochemical properties, saponification, transesterified, energy generationAbstract
The Physicochemical properties of the extracted oil from Raffia palm (Raphia regalis) were investigated. Physical properties such as refractive index, specific gravity, viscosity, moisture content, flash point, smoke point, fire point, pour point and cloud point; and chemical properties such as acid value, free fatty acid, saponification value, unsaponifiable matter, iodine value, ester value and peroxide value were investigated for both raw Raffia oil and transesterified raffia oil. The various properties were investigated using ASTM standard methods and calculations. Results obtained for physical properties: refractive index, specific gravity, viscosity, moisture content, flash point, smoke point, fire point, pour point and cloud point were 1.437, 0.765, 1.420 mm2/sec, 8.0%, 154ºC, 140ºC, 160ºC, -3ºC and -7ºC respectively for the raw Raffia oil, and 1.341, 0.840, 1.21 mm2/sec, 1.6%, 70ºC, 66ºC, 72ºC, -5ºC and -12º for the transesterified raffia oil. Results for the chemical properties: acid value, free fatty acid, saponification value, ester value obtained in (mgKOH/g), iodine value (mgI2/g), peroxide value (mEq/kg) and unsaponifiable matter (%) were determined to be, 18.849, 9.472, 136.043, 117.194, 5.076, 192.000 and 1.814% respectively for the raw Raffia oil; and 31.977, 16.069, 193.545, 161.568, 167.50, 350.800 and 2.481% for the transesterified raffia oil. It was concluded that Raffia oil when processed have great potentials for use as alternative fuel for energy generation.References
Adeyeye, A. and Adewole, K. (1992). Chemical Composition and Fatty Acid Profile of Cereals in Nigeria. Food Chemistry, 44(1): 41 – 44.
Akinhanmi, T.F. and Alatise, V.N. (2008). Chemical Composition and Physiochemical Properties of Cashew Nut (Anacardium occidentale) Oil and Cashew Nut Shell Liquid. Journal of Agricultural, Food and Enviromental Sciences. 2(1): 1-7.
Akinola, A. O. and Fapetu, O. P. (2015). “Characteristics Study of Wood Wastes from Sawmills†British Journal of Applied Science & Technology 6(6): 606-612, 2015, Article no.BJAST.2015.115 http://dx.doi.org/10.9734/bjast/2015/12930
Akintayo, E.T. (2004). Characteristics and composition of Parkiabioglobbossa and oils and cakes. Bioresource Technology. 92: 307-310. 17th ed. Washington, D.C 35:4661–4670.
Akoh, C.C., Chang, S., Lee, G. and Shaw, J. (2007). Enzymatic approach to biodiesel production. Journal Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 55: 8995 – 9005.
Akpabio, U.D. Akpakpan, A.E. Matthew, I.E. and Akpan, A.U. (2011). Extraction and Characterization of oil from Avocado Pears and Native Pear fruits. World Journal of Applied Science and Technology 3(2). 27 – 34
Alamu, O.J, Waheed M.A and Jekayinfa S.O (2007). Alkali-catalysed Laboratory Production and Testing of Biodiesel Fuel from Nigerian Palm Kernel Oil. Agricultural Engineering International. 9(1): 1-11.
Amin, S. (2009). Review of biofuel oil and gas production processes from microalgae. Energy conservation and Management. 50(7): 1834 – 1840.
Antczak, M.S., Kubiak, A., Antczak, T. and Bielecki, S. (2009). Enzymatic biodiesel synthesis-key factors affecting efficiency of the process. Renew. Energy 34: 1185-1194.
AOAC, (1997). Association of Official Analytical Chemists. Official Methods of Analysis 17th edition, Washington, D.C
Aransiola, E.F., Daramola, M.O. and Ojumu, T.V. (2012). Nigeria Jatrophacurcasoil seeds: prospects for biodiesel production in Nigeria. International Journal of Renewable Energy Research. 2(2): 317 – 325.
Aremu, M., Ibrahim, O. H., and Bamidele, T. O. (2015) “Physicochemical Characteristics of the Oils Extracted from Some Nigerian Plant Foods – A Review†Chemical and Process Engineering Research, Vol. 32
Asiedu, J.J. (1989). Processing Tropical Crops. A Technological Approach. MacMillan Publishers, London, pp. 170-172, 226-246.
ASTM, 2009. Standard Specification for Biodiesel Fuel (B100) Blend Stock for Distillate Fuels; West Conshohoken, PA; American Society of Testing and Materials, In: Annual Book of ASTM Standards Philadephia; pp. 1131-1136.
Asuquo, J.E., Anusiem, A.C.I., and Etim, E.E. (2010). Extension and Chracterisation of Shea Butter Oil. World Journal of Applied Science and Technology. 2(2):282-288.
Atadashi, I.M, Aroua M.K and Aziz A.A (2011). Biodiesel separation and purification: A review. Renewable Energy. 36: 437- 443.
Brown, B. H., Lawford, P. V., Smallwood, R. H., Hose, D. R. and Barber, D. C. (1999) “Medical physics and Biomedical Engineeringâ€, Taylor& Francis, 1999, 736 p. www.lasercenter.vu.lt/images/KEK_ir_LTC/03_Studijos/...in.../7.4_en.pdf
Canakci, M. and Sanli, H. (2008). Biodiesel Production from Various Feedstock and Their Effects on the Fuel Properties. Journal of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology. 35:431-41.
Cocks, L.V. and Rede Van, C. (1966). Laboratory Handbook for Oil and Fat Analysis. Academic Press Inc., London and New York, pp. 80-129.
Cynthia N. I., Chukwuma O.B. O., and Akuzuo U. O. (2012). Comparative Study of the Physicochemical Characterization of Some Oils as Potential Feedstock for Biodiesel Production. International Scholarly Research Notices Renewable Energy Volume 2012 (2012), Article ID 621518, 5 pages http://dx.doi.org/10.5402/2012/621518
Demirbas, A. (2003). Biodiesel fuels from vegetable oils via catalytic and non-catalytic supercritical alcohol transesterifications and other methods: a survey. Energy Conservation and Management. 44(13): 2093-2109.
Demirbas A. (2009). Production of biodiesel from algae oils. Energy sources Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects. 31(2): 163-168.
Eka, O.U. (1997). Properties and Potentials of Rubber Seed Oil. West African Journal of Biological and Applied Chemistry. 20: 45-53.
Engler, C. R, Johnson, L. A., Leport, W. A. and C. M. Yarbrough (1983). Effects of Processing and Chemical Characteristics of Plant Oils on Performance of an Indirect-injection Diesel Engine. Journal of American Oil Chemists’ Society, 60(8): 1592-1596
Geacai, S., Niţă, I., Iulian, O., and Geacai, E. (2012) “Refractive Indices for Biodiesel Mixtures†U.P.B. Scientific Bulletin, Series B, 74(4), 1454-2331
Gopakumar, S.T. (2012). Bio-oil Production through Fast Pyrolysis and Upgrading to “Green†Transportation Fuels. A dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Auburn University in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Auburn, Alabama.
Graboski, M.S. and McCormick, R.L. (1998). Combustion of Fat and Vegetable Oil Derived Fuel in Diesel Engines. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 24: 125-64.
Hanny, J. B. and Shizuko, H. (2008). Biodiesel production from crude Jatropha curcas L.seed oil with a high content of free fatty acids. Bioresources Technology 99:1716–1721.
Hasibuan S, Ma’ruf A and Sahirman, S. (2009). Biodiesel from low grade used frying oil using esterification and transesterification processes. MakaraSains. 13(2): 105-110.
Hoffmann, G. (1986). Edible Oils and Fats, In: Hershedoerfer, S. M. (eds.), Quality control in food industry, 2nd edition, Academic press, London, 407-504.
Ibironke, A. A., Rotimi, A. O., David, O. K. and Joseph, I. V. (2005). Oil Contents and Fatty Acid Composition of Some Underutilized Legumes from Nigeria. International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan, Nigeria.
Igwenyi, I. O., Offor, C. E., Aja, P. M., Aloh, G. S., Orji, O. O. and Ugwu, O. O. (2011).Potentials of Afzelia Africana Vegetable oil in Biodiesel Production. Progress in Renewable Energies 1(1) 8-14.
Igwenyi, I. O, Njoku, O. U, Ikwuagwu, O. E and Nwuke, C. P. (2008). Extraction, Characterization and Potentials of Raphia Mesocarp Oil for the Production of Biodiesel. Journal of Agriculture, Biotechnology and Ecology.1: 53-61.
Ikwuagwu, O.E., Ononogbu, I.C. and Njoku, O.U. (2000). Production of Biodiesel Using Rubber [Hevea Brasiliensis (Kunth. Muell.)] Seed Oil. Industrial Crops and Products; 12:57-62.
Klopfenstein, W.E. and Walker, H.S. (1983). Efficiencies of Various Esters of Fatty Acids as Diesel Fuels. Journal of American Chemists Society, 60(8): 1596 – 1599.
Kochhar, S.L. (1986). Tropical Crops: a Textbook of Economic Botany, Macmillan Publishers Ltd., London and Basingstone, Pp. 152-156
Krause, R, (1998). Plant Oil Local Small-scale Extraction and Use in Engines, Natural Resources and Development, 47:71-82.
Kusdiana, D. and Saka, S. (2004). Effects of water on biodiesel fuel production by supercritical methanol treatment. Bioresources Technology, 91:289-295.
Madras, G., Kolloru, C. and Kumar, R. (2004). Synthesis of Biodiesel in supercritical fluids. Fuel 83:2029-2033.
Marchetti, J.M., Miguel, V.U. and Errazu, A.F. (2007). “Possible methods for biodiesel productionâ€. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews; 11:1300-1311.
Meher, L.C, Sagar D.V and Naik S.N (2006). Technical aspects of biodiesel production by tranesterification-a review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Review. 10: 248 – 268.
Mohammed, M.I. and Hamza, Z.U. (2008) “Physicochemical Properties of Oil Extracts from Sesame indicum L. Seeds Grown in Jigawa State, Nigeriaâ€. Journal ofApplied Sciences and Environmental Management. 12(2): 99-101.
Moser, B.R (2009). “Biodiesel Production, Properties, and Feedstocks†In Vitro Cellular Developmental Biology – Plant, 45(3): 229-266.
Oasmaa, A. and Peacocke, C. (2001) “A guide to physical property characterisation of biomass-derived fast pyrolysis liquids†VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland. VTT Publications 450, pp120
Oshewolo, S (2012). “Designed to fail? Nigeria’s quest for biofuelâ€. Afro Asian Journal of Social Sciences. 3(3): 1-15.
Raja, S.A, Smart, D.S.R and Lee, C.L.R (2011). Biodiesel production from Jatropha oil and its characterization. Research Journal of Chemical Sciences. 1(1): 81 – 87.
Robles-Medina, A., Gonzalez-Moreno, P.A., Esteban-Cerdan, L. and Molina-Grima. (2009).Biocatalysis: Toward Ever Greener Biodiesel Production, Biotechnology Advances. 27:398-408.
Roger, A.B., Rebecca, R.A., Georges, A. and Mathias, I.O. (2010). Chemical Characterization of Oil from Germinated Nuts of Several Coconut Cultivers (South Nuciferh L.). European Journal of Scientific Research. 391(4): 541-522.
Simpson, B.B. and Conner-Orgazally, M. (1986). Economic Botany: Plants in our world, McGraw-Hill Inc., New York, 291-295.
William, O. and Vida O. E. (2015). Evaluation of Saponiication value, Iodine value and Insoluble impurities in Coconut Oils from Jomoro District in the Western Region of Ghana. Asian Journal of Agriculture and Food Science, 03 (05), 494-499.
Adeyeye, A. and Adewole, K. (1992). Chemical Composition and Fatty Acid Profile of Cereals in Nigeria. Food Chemistry, 44(1): 41 – 44.
Akinhanmi, T.F. and Alatise, V.N. (2008). Chemical Composition and Physiochemical Properties of Cashew Nut (Anacardium occidentale) Oil and Cashew Nut Shell Liquid. Journal of Agricultural, Food and Enviromental Sciences. 2(1): 1-7.
Akinola, A. O. and Fapetu, O. P. (2015). “Characteristics Study of Wood Wastes from Sawmills†British Journal of Applied Science & Technology 6(6): 606-612, 2015, Article no.BJAST.2015.115 http://dx.doi.org/10.9734/bjast/2015/12930
Akintayo, E.T. (2004). Characteristics and composition of Parkiabioglobbossa and oils and cakes. Bioresource Technology. 92: 307-310. 17th ed. Washington, D.C 35:4661–4670.
Akoh, C.C., Chang, S., Lee, G. and Shaw, J. (2007). Enzymatic approach to biodiesel production. Journal Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 55: 8995 – 9005.
Akpabio, U.D. Akpakpan, A.E. Matthew, I.E. and Akpan, A.U. (2011). Extraction and Characterization of oil from Avocado Pears and Native Pear fruits. World Journal of Applied Science and Technology 3(2). 27 – 34
Alamu, O.J, Waheed M.A and Jekayinfa S.O (2007). Alkali-catalysed Laboratory Production and Testing of Biodiesel Fuel from Nigerian Palm Kernel Oil. Agricultural Engineering International. 9(1): 1-11.
Amin, S. (2009). Review of biofuel oil and gas production processes from microalgae. Energy conservation and Management. 50(7): 1834 – 1840.
Antczak, M.S., Kubiak, A., Antczak, T. and Bielecki, S. (2009). Enzymatic biodiesel synthesis-key factors affecting efficiency of the process. Renew. Energy 34: 1185-1194.
AOAC, (1997). Association of Official Analytical Chemists. Official Methods of Analysis 17th edition, Washington, D.C
Aransiola, E.F., Daramola, M.O. and Ojumu, T.V. (2012). Nigeria Jatrophacurcasoil seeds: prospects for biodiesel production in Nigeria. International Journal of Renewable Energy Research. 2(2): 317 – 325.
Aremu, M., Ibrahim, O. H., and Bamidele, T. O. (2015) “Physicochemical Characteristics of the Oils Extracted from Some Nigerian Plant Foods – A Review†Chemical and Process Engineering Research, Vol. 32
Asiedu, J.J. (1989). Processing Tropical Crops. A Technological Approach. MacMillan Publishers, London, pp. 170-172, 226-246.
ASTM, 2009. Standard Specification for Biodiesel Fuel (B100) Blend Stock for Distillate Fuels; West Conshohoken, PA; American Society of Testing and Materials, In: Annual Book of ASTM Standards Philadephia; pp. 1131-1136.
Asuquo, J.E., Anusiem, A.C.I., and Etim, E.E. (2010). Extension and Chracterisation of Shea Butter Oil. World Journal of Applied Science and Technology. 2(2):282-288.
Atadashi, I.M, Aroua M.K and Aziz A.A (2011). Biodiesel separation and purification: A review. Renewable Energy. 36: 437- 443.
Brown, B. H., Lawford, P. V., Smallwood, R. H., Hose, D. R. and Barber, D. C. (1999) “Medical physics and Biomedical Engineeringâ€, Taylor& Francis, 1999, 736 p. www.lasercenter.vu.lt/images/KEK_ir_LTC/03_Studijos/...in.../7.4_en.pdf
Canakci, M. and Sanli, H. (2008). Biodiesel Production from Various Feedstock and Their Effects on the Fuel Properties. Journal of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology. 35:431-41.
Cocks, L.V. and Rede Van, C. (1966). Laboratory Handbook for Oil and Fat Analysis. Academic Press Inc., London and New York, pp. 80-129.
Cynthia N. I., Chukwuma O.B. O., and Akuzuo U. O. (2012). Comparative Study of the Physicochemical Characterization of Some Oils as Potential Feedstock for Biodiesel Production. International Scholarly Research Notices Renewable Energy Volume 2012 (2012), Article ID 621518, 5 pages http://dx.doi.org/10.5402/2012/621518
Demirbas, A. (2003). Biodiesel fuels from vegetable oils via catalytic and non-catalytic supercritical alcohol transesterifications and other methods: a survey. Energy Conservation and Management. 44(13): 2093-2109.
Demirbas A. (2009). Production of biodiesel from algae oils. Energy sources Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects. 31(2): 163-168.
Eka, O.U. (1997). Properties and Potentials of Rubber Seed Oil. West African Journal of Biological and Applied Chemistry. 20: 45-53.
Engler, C. R, Johnson, L. A., Leport, W. A. and C. M. Yarbrough (1983). Effects of Processing and Chemical Characteristics of Plant Oils on Performance of an Indirect-injection Diesel Engine. Journal of American Oil Chemists’ Society, 60(8): 1592-1596
Geacai, S., Niţă, I., Iulian, O., and Geacai, E. (2012) “Refractive Indices for Biodiesel Mixtures†U.P.B. Scientific Bulletin, Series B, 74(4), 1454-2331
Gopakumar, S.T. (2012). Bio-oil Production through Fast Pyrolysis and Upgrading to “Green†Transportation Fuels. A dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Auburn University in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Auburn, Alabama.
Graboski, M.S. and McCormick, R.L. (1998). Combustion of Fat and Vegetable Oil Derived Fuel in Diesel Engines. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 24: 125-64.
Hanny, J. B. and Shizuko, H. (2008). Biodiesel production from crude Jatropha curcas L.seed oil with a high content of free fatty acids. Bioresources Technology 99:1716–1721.
Hasibuan S, Ma’ruf A and Sahirman, S. (2009). Biodiesel from low grade used frying oil using esterification and transesterification processes. MakaraSains. 13(2): 105-110.
Hoffmann, G. (1986). Edible Oils and Fats, In: Hershedoerfer, S. M. (eds.), Quality control in food industry, 2nd edition, Academic press, London, 407-504.
Ibironke, A. A., Rotimi, A. O., David, O. K. and Joseph, I. V. (2005). Oil Contents and Fatty Acid Composition of Some Underutilized Legumes from Nigeria. International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan, Nigeria.
Igwenyi, I. O., Offor, C. E., Aja, P. M., Aloh, G. S., Orji, O. O. and Ugwu, O. O. (2011).Potentials of Afzelia Africana Vegetable oil in Biodiesel Production. Progress in Renewable Energies 1(1) 8-14.
Igwenyi, I. O, Njoku, O. U, Ikwuagwu, O. E and Nwuke, C. P. (2008). Extraction, Characterization and Potentials of Raphia Mesocarp Oil for the Production of Biodiesel. Journal of Agriculture, Biotechnology and Ecology.1: 53-61.
Ikwuagwu, O.E., Ononogbu, I.C. and Njoku, O.U. (2000). Production of Biodiesel Using Rubber [Hevea Brasiliensis (Kunth. Muell.)] Seed Oil. Industrial Crops and Products; 12:57-62.
Klopfenstein, W.E. and Walker, H.S. (1983). Efficiencies of Various Esters of Fatty Acids as Diesel Fuels. Journal of American Chemists Society, 60(8): 1596 – 1599.
Kochhar, S.L. (1986). Tropical Crops: a Textbook of Economic Botany, Macmillan Publishers Ltd., London and Basingstone, Pp. 152-156
Krause, R, (1998). Plant Oil Local Small-scale Extraction and Use in Engines, Natural Resources and Development, 47:71-82.
Kusdiana, D. and Saka, S. (2004). Effects of water on biodiesel fuel production by supercritical methanol treatment. Bioresources Technology, 91:289-295.
Madras, G., Kolloru, C. and Kumar, R. (2004). Synthesis of Biodiesel in supercritical fluids. Fuel 83:2029-2033.
Marchetti, J.M., Miguel, V.U. and Errazu, A.F. (2007). “Possible methods for biodiesel productionâ€. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews; 11:1300-1311.
Meher, L.C, Sagar D.V and Naik S.N (2006). Technical aspects of biodiesel production by tranesterification-a review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Review. 10: 248 – 268.
Mohammed, M.I. and Hamza, Z.U. (2008) “Physicochemical Properties of Oil Extracts from Sesame indicum L. Seeds Grown in Jigawa State, Nigeriaâ€. Journal ofApplied Sciences and Environmental Management. 12(2): 99-101.
Moser, B.R (2009). “Biodiesel Production, Properties, and Feedstocks†In Vitro Cellular Developmental Biology – Plant, 45(3): 229-266.
Oasmaa, A. and Peacocke, C. (2001) “A guide to physical property characterisation of biomass-derived fast pyrolysis liquids†VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland. VTT Publications 450, pp120
Oshewolo, S (2012). “Designed to fail? Nigeria’s quest for biofuelâ€. Afro Asian Journal of Social Sciences. 3(3): 1-15.
Raja, S.A, Smart, D.S.R and Lee, C.L.R (2011). Biodiesel production from Jatropha oil and its characterization. Research Journal of Chemical Sciences. 1(1): 81 – 87.
Robles-Medina, A., Gonzalez-Moreno, P.A., Esteban-Cerdan, L. and Molina-Grima. (2009).Biocatalysis: Toward Ever Greener Biodiesel Production, Biotechnology Advances. 27:398-408.
Roger, A.B., Rebecca, R.A., Georges, A. and Mathias, I.O. (2010). Chemical Characterization of Oil from Germinated Nuts of Several Coconut Cultivers (South Nuciferh L.). European Journal of Scientific Research. 391(4): 541-522.
Simpson, B.B. and Conner-Orgazally, M. (1986). Economic Botany: Plants in our world, McGraw-Hill Inc., New York, 291-295.
William, O. and Vida O. E. (2015). Evaluation of Saponiication value, Iodine value and Insoluble impurities in Coconut Oils from Jomoro District in the Western Region of Ghana. Asian Journal of Agriculture and Food Science, 03 (05), 494-499.
Akinhanmi, T.F. and Alatise, V.N. (2008). Chemical Composition and Physiochemical Properties of Cashew Nut (Anacardium occidentale) Oil and Cashew Nut Shell Liquid. Journal of Agricultural, Food and Enviromental Sciences. 2(1): 1-7.
Akinola, A. O. and Fapetu, O. P. (2015). “Characteristics Study of Wood Wastes from Sawmills†British Journal of Applied Science & Technology 6(6): 606-612, 2015, Article no.BJAST.2015.115 http://dx.doi.org/10.9734/bjast/2015/12930
Akintayo, E.T. (2004). Characteristics and composition of Parkiabioglobbossa and oils and cakes. Bioresource Technology. 92: 307-310. 17th ed. Washington, D.C 35:4661–4670.
Akoh, C.C., Chang, S., Lee, G. and Shaw, J. (2007). Enzymatic approach to biodiesel production. Journal Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 55: 8995 – 9005.
Akpabio, U.D. Akpakpan, A.E. Matthew, I.E. and Akpan, A.U. (2011). Extraction and Characterization of oil from Avocado Pears and Native Pear fruits. World Journal of Applied Science and Technology 3(2). 27 – 34
Alamu, O.J, Waheed M.A and Jekayinfa S.O (2007). Alkali-catalysed Laboratory Production and Testing of Biodiesel Fuel from Nigerian Palm Kernel Oil. Agricultural Engineering International. 9(1): 1-11.
Amin, S. (2009). Review of biofuel oil and gas production processes from microalgae. Energy conservation and Management. 50(7): 1834 – 1840.
Antczak, M.S., Kubiak, A., Antczak, T. and Bielecki, S. (2009). Enzymatic biodiesel synthesis-key factors affecting efficiency of the process. Renew. Energy 34: 1185-1194.
AOAC, (1997). Association of Official Analytical Chemists. Official Methods of Analysis 17th edition, Washington, D.C
Aransiola, E.F., Daramola, M.O. and Ojumu, T.V. (2012). Nigeria Jatrophacurcasoil seeds: prospects for biodiesel production in Nigeria. International Journal of Renewable Energy Research. 2(2): 317 – 325.
Aremu, M., Ibrahim, O. H., and Bamidele, T. O. (2015) “Physicochemical Characteristics of the Oils Extracted from Some Nigerian Plant Foods – A Review†Chemical and Process Engineering Research, Vol. 32
Asiedu, J.J. (1989). Processing Tropical Crops. A Technological Approach. MacMillan Publishers, London, pp. 170-172, 226-246.
ASTM, 2009. Standard Specification for Biodiesel Fuel (B100) Blend Stock for Distillate Fuels; West Conshohoken, PA; American Society of Testing and Materials, In: Annual Book of ASTM Standards Philadephia; pp. 1131-1136.
Asuquo, J.E., Anusiem, A.C.I., and Etim, E.E. (2010). Extension and Chracterisation of Shea Butter Oil. World Journal of Applied Science and Technology. 2(2):282-288.
Atadashi, I.M, Aroua M.K and Aziz A.A (2011). Biodiesel separation and purification: A review. Renewable Energy. 36: 437- 443.
Brown, B. H., Lawford, P. V., Smallwood, R. H., Hose, D. R. and Barber, D. C. (1999) “Medical physics and Biomedical Engineeringâ€, Taylor& Francis, 1999, 736 p. www.lasercenter.vu.lt/images/KEK_ir_LTC/03_Studijos/...in.../7.4_en.pdf
Canakci, M. and Sanli, H. (2008). Biodiesel Production from Various Feedstock and Their Effects on the Fuel Properties. Journal of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology. 35:431-41.
Cocks, L.V. and Rede Van, C. (1966). Laboratory Handbook for Oil and Fat Analysis. Academic Press Inc., London and New York, pp. 80-129.
Cynthia N. I., Chukwuma O.B. O., and Akuzuo U. O. (2012). Comparative Study of the Physicochemical Characterization of Some Oils as Potential Feedstock for Biodiesel Production. International Scholarly Research Notices Renewable Energy Volume 2012 (2012), Article ID 621518, 5 pages http://dx.doi.org/10.5402/2012/621518
Demirbas, A. (2003). Biodiesel fuels from vegetable oils via catalytic and non-catalytic supercritical alcohol transesterifications and other methods: a survey. Energy Conservation and Management. 44(13): 2093-2109.
Demirbas A. (2009). Production of biodiesel from algae oils. Energy sources Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects. 31(2): 163-168.
Eka, O.U. (1997). Properties and Potentials of Rubber Seed Oil. West African Journal of Biological and Applied Chemistry. 20: 45-53.
Engler, C. R, Johnson, L. A., Leport, W. A. and C. M. Yarbrough (1983). Effects of Processing and Chemical Characteristics of Plant Oils on Performance of an Indirect-injection Diesel Engine. Journal of American Oil Chemists’ Society, 60(8): 1592-1596
Geacai, S., Niţă, I., Iulian, O., and Geacai, E. (2012) “Refractive Indices for Biodiesel Mixtures†U.P.B. Scientific Bulletin, Series B, 74(4), 1454-2331
Gopakumar, S.T. (2012). Bio-oil Production through Fast Pyrolysis and Upgrading to “Green†Transportation Fuels. A dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Auburn University in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Auburn, Alabama.
Graboski, M.S. and McCormick, R.L. (1998). Combustion of Fat and Vegetable Oil Derived Fuel in Diesel Engines. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 24: 125-64.
Hanny, J. B. and Shizuko, H. (2008). Biodiesel production from crude Jatropha curcas L.seed oil with a high content of free fatty acids. Bioresources Technology 99:1716–1721.
Hasibuan S, Ma’ruf A and Sahirman, S. (2009). Biodiesel from low grade used frying oil using esterification and transesterification processes. MakaraSains. 13(2): 105-110.
Hoffmann, G. (1986). Edible Oils and Fats, In: Hershedoerfer, S. M. (eds.), Quality control in food industry, 2nd edition, Academic press, London, 407-504.
Ibironke, A. A., Rotimi, A. O., David, O. K. and Joseph, I. V. (2005). Oil Contents and Fatty Acid Composition of Some Underutilized Legumes from Nigeria. International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan, Nigeria.
Igwenyi, I. O., Offor, C. E., Aja, P. M., Aloh, G. S., Orji, O. O. and Ugwu, O. O. (2011).Potentials of Afzelia Africana Vegetable oil in Biodiesel Production. Progress in Renewable Energies 1(1) 8-14.
Igwenyi, I. O, Njoku, O. U, Ikwuagwu, O. E and Nwuke, C. P. (2008). Extraction, Characterization and Potentials of Raphia Mesocarp Oil for the Production of Biodiesel. Journal of Agriculture, Biotechnology and Ecology.1: 53-61.
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Igwenyi, I. O, Njoku, O. U, Ikwuagwu, O. E and Nwuke, C. P. (2008). Extraction, Characterization and Potentials of Raphia Mesocarp Oil for the Production of Biodiesel. Journal of Agriculture, Biotechnology and Ecology.1: 53-61.
Ikwuagwu, O.E., Ononogbu, I.C. and Njoku, O.U. (2000). Production of Biodiesel Using Rubber [Hevea Brasiliensis (Kunth. Muell.)] Seed Oil. Industrial Crops and Products; 12:57-62.
Klopfenstein, W.E. and Walker, H.S. (1983). Efficiencies of Various Esters of Fatty Acids as Diesel Fuels. Journal of American Chemists Society, 60(8): 1596 – 1599.
Kochhar, S.L. (1986). Tropical Crops: a Textbook of Economic Botany, Macmillan Publishers Ltd., London and Basingstone, Pp. 152-156
Krause, R, (1998). Plant Oil Local Small-scale Extraction and Use in Engines, Natural Resources and Development, 47:71-82.
Kusdiana, D. and Saka, S. (2004). Effects of water on biodiesel fuel production by supercritical methanol treatment. Bioresources Technology, 91:289-295.
Madras, G., Kolloru, C. and Kumar, R. (2004). Synthesis of Biodiesel in supercritical fluids. Fuel 83:2029-2033.
Marchetti, J.M., Miguel, V.U. and Errazu, A.F. (2007). “Possible methods for biodiesel productionâ€. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews; 11:1300-1311.
Meher, L.C, Sagar D.V and Naik S.N (2006). Technical aspects of biodiesel production by tranesterification-a review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Review. 10: 248 – 268.
Mohammed, M.I. and Hamza, Z.U. (2008) “Physicochemical Properties of Oil Extracts from Sesame indicum L. Seeds Grown in Jigawa State, Nigeriaâ€. Journal ofApplied Sciences and Environmental Management. 12(2): 99-101.
Moser, B.R (2009). “Biodiesel Production, Properties, and Feedstocks†In Vitro Cellular Developmental Biology – Plant, 45(3): 229-266.
Oasmaa, A. and Peacocke, C. (2001) “A guide to physical property characterisation of biomass-derived fast pyrolysis liquids†VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland. VTT Publications 450, pp120
Oshewolo, S (2012). “Designed to fail? Nigeria’s quest for biofuelâ€. Afro Asian Journal of Social Sciences. 3(3): 1-15.
Raja, S.A, Smart, D.S.R and Lee, C.L.R (2011). Biodiesel production from Jatropha oil and its characterization. Research Journal of Chemical Sciences. 1(1): 81 – 87.
Robles-Medina, A., Gonzalez-Moreno, P.A., Esteban-Cerdan, L. and Molina-Grima. (2009).Biocatalysis: Toward Ever Greener Biodiesel Production, Biotechnology Advances. 27:398-408.
Roger, A.B., Rebecca, R.A., Georges, A. and Mathias, I.O. (2010). Chemical Characterization of Oil from Germinated Nuts of Several Coconut Cultivers (South Nuciferh L.). European Journal of Scientific Research. 391(4): 541-522.
Simpson, B.B. and Conner-Orgazally, M. (1986). Economic Botany: Plants in our world, McGraw-Hill Inc., New York, 291-295.
William, O. and Vida O. E. (2015). Evaluation of Saponiication value, Iodine value and Insoluble impurities in Coconut Oils from Jomoro District in the Western Region of Ghana. Asian Journal of Agriculture and Food Science, 03 (05), 494-499.
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